China-Russia Relations

Backgrounder: How Has the China-Russia Relationship Evolved?

Major Milestones in the China-Russia Relationship

▲ October 1949. Establishment of Diplomatic Relations. Shortly after the founding of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949, China establishes formal diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union.

▲ February 14, 1950. Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance. The two countries sign the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance, which returned certain Soviet-occupied territory back to China and set the stage for the Soviets to provide China with significant economic, technological, and military aid.

▲ 1960 – 1989. Sino-Soviet Split. In the mid-1950s, an ideological rift emerges between Chinese leader Mao Zedong and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Growing tensions lead to the Sino-Soviet split, which lasts into the 1980s.

▲ May 15, 1989 – May 18, 1989. 1989 Sino-Soviet Summit. Mikhail Gorbachev visits Beijing and holds meetings with Deng Xiaoping and other Chinese officials, marking the first visit by a Soviet leader since 1959. At the summit, the two sides agree to establish normal government-to-government and party-to-party relations.

▲ May 15, 1991 – May 19, 1991. Jiang Zemin Visits Moscow. During a visit by Chinese leader Jiang Zemin to Moscow, the two countries sign an agreement that partially settles their border disputes.

▲ April 25, 1996. Upgrading of Relationship to a “Partnership of Strategic Coordination”. Russian President Boris Yeltsin visits China and the two sides issue a joint statement establishing a “Sino-Russian partnership of strategic coordination.”

▲ July 16, 2001. Treaty of Good Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation. China and Russia sign the Treaty of Good Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, which sets the foundation for the relationship in the 21st century.

▲ October 15, 2004. Settlement of the China-Russia Border. Hu Jintao and Vladimir Putin sign 13 agreements, including an agreement that fixes their border and finally resolves their border disputes.

▲ August 15, 2005 – August 25, 2005. First Joint Military Exercise. China and Russia hold their first bilateral military exercise, known as “Peace Mission 2005.” The exercise involves around 10,000 troops from both countries.

▲ June 6, 2011. Upgrading Relations. On the 10th anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Good Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, China and Russia agree to establish a “comprehensive strategic partnership.”

▲ June 5, 2019. Upgrading Relations for a “New Era”. Chinese President Xi Jinping visits Moscow to meet with Russian President Vladimir Putin. The two leaders announce the upgrading of the relationship to a “comprehensive strategic partnership of coordination for a new era.”

▲ February 4, 2022. Joint Statement on the Sidelines of the 2022 Olympic Games. Vladimir Putin visits China and meets with Xi Jinping on the sidelines of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympic Games. The two sides release a joint statement signaling the strength of the relationship just weeks before Russia invades Ukraine.

Feature 1: What Are the Key Strengths of the China-Russia Relationship?

This feature explores how the China-Russia relationship came to be so close, up until the time of Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine. The analysis centers on five key ways in which China benefits from the relationship, each of which is examined in detail.

One of the key strengths highlighted in this feature is the strong personal relationship between Chinese President Xi Jinping and Russian President Vladimir Putin. Since he became China’s president in 2013, Xi has met with Vladimir Putin 39 times, which is more than double the number of times Xi has met with leaders of any other major power.

▲ Xi Jinping’s Meetings with Select Foreign Leaders (2013-2022)

Feature 2: What Are the Weaknesses of the China-Russia Relationship?

This feature explores key areas of uncertainty and weak points within the China-Russia relationship. While ties between Beijing and Moscow are currently close, there are areas of tension and uncertainty within the relationship. One potential long-term stressor on the relationship is the growing power disparity between the two countries, as China solidifies its position as the more “senior” partner.

This is most visible with respect to economic power. China’s GDP has already far outpaced Russia’s, and the gap between the two is set to widen as China’s GDP is expected to climb toward nearly $30 trillion in the coming years, while Russia’s is forecasted to stagnate at well under $2 trillion.

▲ GDP of China and Russia

Feature 3: How Does China Benefit from Military Cooperation with Russia?

This forthcoming feature will assess Chinese and Russian military cooperation, a crucial element of the broader bilateral relationship. One key area of China-Russia military cooperation that will be examined in this feature is military exercises.

The two countries conducted their first joint military exercise in 2005, with another four exercises between 2007 and 2012. Starting in 2013, however, China and Russia significantly ramped up their participation in bilateral and multilateral exercises with each other. Through 2021, they have held a total of 53 military exercises.

Keep an eye out for this feature to learn more about how China and Russia benefit from these military exercises, as well as other forms of military cooperation, such as arms sales.

▲ China-Russia Joint Military Exercises